The Northern Crusades: A history of conflict and conversion

When most people think of the Crusades, they often turn to the extensive wars waged in the Middle East between Christian and Muslim forces. However, another series of crusades took place in Northern and Eastern Europe – an often-overlooked chapter of history known as the Northern Crusades. These campaigns, spanning from the late 12th to the early 15th century, were launched by Catholic powers against the pagan and Orthodox Christian peoples of the Baltic region.

The Northern Crusades were a direct extension of the broader medieval crusading movement, which had begun with Pope Urban II’s call for the First Crusade in 1095. By the late 12th century, the Catholic Church had turned its focus northward, seeking to expand Christendom into territories populated by pagans such as the Old Prussians, Livonians, Estonians, and Lithuanians.

In 1193, Pope Celestine III formally called for a crusade against these non-Christian peoples, encouraging European monarchs and military orders to take up the cause. Unlike the Middle Eastern Crusades, which primarily aimed to reclaim the Holy Land, the Northern Crusades were largely driven by the desire to conquer and convert, mostly by force.

Several powerful groups played crucial roles in the Northern Crusades:

• The Teutonic Order: Originally a German military order founded in the Holy Land, the Teutonic Knights became the dominant force in the Baltic Crusades. They established a vast territory in Prussia and Livonia, imposing Catholic rule and engaging in prolonged wars against local pagan and Orthodox Christian rulers.

• The Livonian Brothers of the Sword: This military order was formed in 1202 to Christianize the people of Livonia (modern-day Latvia and Estonia). They built several castles, and helped to pacify much of the land. However, after suffering heavy defeats, they were eventually absorbed by the Teutonic Order in 1237 after the Battle of Saule.

• Danish and Swedish monarchies: The Danish and Swedish kings launched their own campaigns in Estonia, Finland, and the surrounding regions. Denmark successfully took control of parts of northern Estonia in the early 13th century, while Sweden conducted crusades against Finnish and Karelian tribes.

The Wendish Crusade (1147): The Wendish Crusade was one of the earliest Northern Crusades, launched in 1147 as part of the Second Crusade. It targeted the pagan Wends (Western Slavs) living in present-day northeastern Germany and Poland. Led by Saxon and Danish nobles, the campaign aimed to convert the Wends by force. However, rather than widespread conversions, the crusade resulted in pillaging and territorial expansion. While some Wendish leaders accepted Christianity, resistance continued, and full subjugation only occurred in later decades.

The Livonian Crusade (1198–1290): One of the earliest and most significant Northern Crusades, this campaign focused on converting the Livonians, Estonians, and other Baltic peoples. The Livonian Brothers of the Sword, supported by German and Danish forces, waged numerous battles to subjugate the region. One of the most infamous events was the Battle of Saule (1236), where the pagan Samogitians decisively defeated the crusaders, leading to their merger with the Teutonic Knights.

The Prussian Crusade (1226–1283): At the request of Polish Duke Conrad of Mazovia, the Teutonic Order was invited to combat the pagan Prussians. Over the next several decades, the knights brutally subdued the region, systematically exterminating resistance and establishing a theocratic state.

The Lithuanian Crusade (1300s–1410): The Teutonic Order waged one of its longest and most intense campaigns against the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the last major pagan state in Europe. However, Lithuanian rulers proved resilient. Grand Duke Jogaila’s conversion to Christianity in 1386 and his marriage to Queen Jadwiga of Poland marked a turning point. The conflict culminated in the Battle of Grunwald (1410), where a Polish-Lithuanian alliance decisively defeated the Teutonic Knights, signalling the decline of their power in the region.

The Northern Crusades reshaped the political and religious landscape of the Baltic. Entire regions were forcibly Christianized, and indigenous cultures were suppressed or assimilated into the Catholic European sphere. The Teutonic Order's dominance led to the foundation of Prussia, which would later become part of Germany and play a significant role in European history.

However, these crusades also left deep scars. The forced conversions and destruction of native traditions fostered resentment, and in some cases, resistance movements continued for centuries. Even today, the legacy of these wars influences historical narratives in the Baltic states.

The Northern Crusades may not have the same level of fame as their Middle Eastern counterparts, but they were instrumental in shaping the history of Northern and Eastern Europe. A mix of religious zeal, territorial ambition, and military conquest, these campaigns defined the medieval Baltic world and set the stage for future conflicts. Understanding their history allows us to see the far-reaching consequences of religious wars and how they continue to shape modern identities in the region.